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(The commas around combined I would consider possible, but only optional.) …

The commas around at the corner, however, are often not necessary. In this case I'd leave them out, but I wouldn't say they are wrong. …

Your rule is correct; but those aren't "two independent clauses". The clause because cancer cells are extremely diverse in their metastatic ability is dependent/subordinate, as it cannot stand on its …

Semicola can be used between fragments rather than full clauses, especially in an enumeration where the enumerated phrases are long or contain commas, in order to make the sentence easier to read. …

Traditionally, it would have to be suggests, because the parenthesis (part between commas) does not count towards the plural. …

The issue here is that the syntax of the core of the sentence he couldn't... transcends the quotation boundary. The subject, he, is not part of the quotation, but its verb, couldn't, is. In that case, …

The clause after the comma is ambiguous in that regard: it may modify the whole sentence, and it may modify only the clause after and. We'd need more context to tell which was intended. At any rate, t …

No: you should not place a comma before as well at the end of a sentence. You would normally put a comma before as if it introduces a further explanation of the function of something, and only then i …

Or that the elliptical clause should be seen as a kind of afterthought: afterthoughts are generally separated by commas. … One reason is that the sentence is short, and shorter sentences generally have fewer non-compulsory commas. …

My advice would be to avoid this situation if possible, by recasting the sentence. If that is impossible, which I agree it sometimes is, I say you should add the comma. This will give the reader of su …

I understand why it looks unpleasant to you. But, no, a comma is not warranted. Instead, you might want to recast the sentence. One solution could be to use bidimensional instead of two-dimensional.

Typing on his laptop is a (non-simple, non-attributive) participial phrase, which is usually separated from the rest of its clause by means of commas. …

Yes, most style books would probably insist on the comma. I too would use a comma, although I wouldn't say it was truly wrong without a comma. It should indisputably be signals, as you say. Sound is …

Many kinds of phrases are separated from the rest of the sentence by one or two commas without being clauses. … This relative clause is defining/restrictive, in which case it is not marked off by commas. …

This is not a clause, but an adverbial phrase. According to most style guides, the comma is optional after an introductory adverbial phrase, but it is more often included than not.